Chapter 1: Matter and Antimatter / https://studio.youtube.com/video/PQik...
This chapter uses positronium as an example to show how matter (electrons) and antimatter (positrons) can interact without annihilating each other immediately. Despite their opposite charges, both electrons and positrons possess spin and a magnetic moment. The relativistic orbital model presented here incorporates a quantum gravity (QG) hypothesis for the first time. According to this new theory, the spin of both the electron and the positron changes four times during an orbital revolution. They return to their starting point with a total angular sum of 720° and the same spin state (s, s'). In the process, the electric fields caused by the spin in the four arcs cancel each other out, as do the respective angular momenta of the particles within their orbital paths. Each particle thus forms a standing wave with two periods (T, T') on the surface of a virtual transformation sphere with a radius of r₁, avoiding collision by regularly alternating between the outer and inner sides of its respective orbital path (U₁, U₂) along double-helix loops of equal path length (g = g'). In this process, each electron and positron forms a standing wave with two periods (T and T') on the surface of a virtual transformation sphere with a radius of r₁. While avoiding collision, they regularly alternate between the outer and inner sides of their respective orbital paths (U₁ and U₂) along double-helix loops. Consequently, matter and antimatter orbit their common centre of mass (M₁) while maintaining maximum distance from each other due to magnetic repulsion, thus avoiding immediate annihilation. Instead, they form an atom known as positronium, which resembles the hydrogen atom. According to the relativistic orbital model, positronium can exist in this state for longer than previously thought because a collision between an electron and a positron is impossible. The central magnetic field line, shown in yellow in the video, remains unoccupied due to the magnetic repulsion between the particles. It serves as a reference line that clarifies the dimensional relationships.
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Chapter 2: Hydrogen, How Gravity Interacts With Spacetime, https://lnkd.in/esKe6bBe
The universe has an underlying structural system comprising cube-shaped building blocks of the same size. An oscillating sphere sits inside each cube and is in a resonant relationship with a much larger structure made up of atoms, molecules and crystals. Electrons obtain their inexhaustible energy through their connection to the underlying zero-point energy, which is unique to the universe. The video depicts the oscillation of a standing wave moving back and forth in one direction. In principle, this oscillation can occur in all directions of Euclidean space, represented by the x, y and z axes. It relates to #resrom1, showing the geometric constraints imposed by the Poincaré group that limit the amplitude and displacement of a standing wave composed of two periods (T and T'). However, it should be noted that the width of the underlying belt structure shown in Chapter 1 is variable. Recent experiments demonstrate that electron superposition can extend to the diameter of the entire universe. Within the theoretical framework of a block universe, photons can travel instantaneously between the universe's boundaries. In contrast, electrons are influenced by gravity and cannot travel faster than the speed of light (299,792,458 metres per second). Your comments are appreciated.
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Chapter 3: Hydrogen, How Gravity Interacts With Spacetime, https://lnkd.in/e4VcPwzh
Ladies and gentlemen, I studied architecture rather than chemistry or physics, but it is one of the few professions in which it is possible to become a generalist — particularly if you are interested in discovering "what holds the world together at its very core," as in Goethe's Dr. Heinrich Faust. The following lines from Faust, Part One, Chapter 1, "Night," perhaps show just how close Goethe came to unraveling this worldly mystery—at least in poetic terms: "How everything weaves itself into a whole, how one thing works and lives within the other! How the forces of heaven rise and fall and pass the same golden buckets to one another! With wings fragrant with blessing, they penetrate from heaven through the earth, resounding harmoniously throughout the entire universe!” Goethe sensed that there must be a fabric in the universe connecting dead and living matter through energetic exchanges carried by vibrations. Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity states that space and time are relative and that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant for all observers. According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, gravity is not an invisible force of attraction. Rather, it is the result of the curvature of space and time. As an architect and structuralist, I have made a discovery that neither physics nor chemistry has achieved.
Within the S orbital, I discovered a standing wave structure connected to the curvature of space and time as described by the general theory of relativity. This structure is also related to quantum mechanics and zero-point energy. As a quantum-scale phenomenon, zero-point energy represents the smallest possible quantity in quantum mechanics. Neither more nor less! In fourteen chapters, I have only begun to explore the world of chemical elements and molecules. Within the s-orbitals, I discovered a scale-independent standing wave with two periods. This wave must derive its energy from resonance with the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). This is the only explanation for why an electron does not immediately fall into the atomic nucleus, why a permanent magnet never loses its magnetic force, and why gravity holds the world together. Join me as I take you on a journey into the marvelous world of orbitals and explore the quantum nature of chemistry. I welcome discussion and hope you have an "Eureka!" moment as your understanding expands. The resonant, quantum-mechanical orbital model of the s orbitals establishes a mathematical relationship between energy/frequency space, where the electron has a defined probability of residing, and physical space, defined by the x, y, and z axes.
As an electron moves along an infinite, double-helix-shaped loop in a standing wave with two periods, changing its spin from up to down four times during one orbit, the spectral lines can be interpreted as the boundaries of the respective s orbital. Spectral lines indicate the energy jumps that electrons make between atomic orbitals. Emission lines appear as bright lines against a dark background, indicating an excited electron's quantum leap into a higher-energy orbital. When the electron falls back into a lower, more stable orbital, the spectral line lights up again. During a quantum jump, excess energy is emitted in the form of a photon. The wavelength — and thus the color — of this light corresponds exactly to the energy gap between the two orbitals. When an atom is irradiated with white light, absorption lines appear as dark lines in the visible light spectrum. In this process, an electron in the ground state absorbs the energy of the photons irradiating it to jump to a higher orbital. The electron absorbs the photon whose energy precisely corresponds to the energy gap between the orbitals. This photon is subsequently missing from the spectrum, resulting in a dark line. The energy difference between the orbitals can be calculated using the formula ΔE = hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency or wavelength of the line. Since each element has a unique orbital arrangement, each element has a distinctive spectral line pattern. This enables us to identify the elements present in stars.
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Chapter 4: Hydrogen, How Gravity Interacts With Spacetime, https://lnkd.in/ee5yy3EF ybr> The One Geometric Structure that Governs the Universe as a Whole is presented here.
The idea of a 'vacuum' between celestial bodies is theoretical. Space is not truly empty because gravity still exerts its influence there. The phenomenon of two masses physically attracting each other has never been directly observed. Even the renowned scientist Newton refrained from making speculative hypotheses about it, stating that he had no hypothesis. The concept of a 'vacuum' also applies to the space between the nucleus of an atom and its electron shell. Using the hydrogen atom as a model, Niels Bohr accurately calculated the precise distance between the nucleus of a hydrogen atom and the orbit of its electron. This distance is equivalent to approximately one-twentieth of a nanometre. Compared to the atomic nucleus, Bohr's radius seems substantial: it is equivalent to the distance between a micro-sphere at the centre of a football stadium and the outermost rows, representing the electron's innermost orbital. The video presents a hydrogen orbital model with four quantum field levels, illustrating the eccentric orbits that produce ring-shaped bands. At each of these levels, the direction of the electron spin changes. The distance between an inner circle, shown in blue, and an outer circle, shown in green, defines a hollow spherical quantum space in which the electron occupies an orbital on the surface of a uniform transformation sphere. The distance of this sphere from the atomic nucleus corresponds to Bohr's radius. This transformation sphere fulfils the conditions of a Poincaré group and is subject to Lorentz transformation, rotation and translation. This implies that the electron can be found at any point within the hollow sphere defined by the blue and green circles. Furthermore, it can be demonstrated that the path length of an electron in the orbitals of the hydrogen atom is proportional to the radius of the blue and red semicircular arcs. Therefore, the path length for fermions can generally be expressed as 4πr, where r is the radius. Assuming that gravity is a property of spacetime, it can be stated that gravity changes its 'sign' as it passes through the four quantum field planes, manifesting as both an attractive and a repulsive force. Consequently, a balance of forces is established between the atomic nucleus and the electron shell, preventing the electron from crashing into the nucleus. This balance is consistent with astrophysical observations of black holes and the expansion of the universe.
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Chapter 5: Protium, Deuterium, and Tritium, https://youtu.be/b03Ja1dgn6g?si=Ks4Z1osJhFi4A9IT
The One Geometric Structure that Governs the Universe as a Whole is presented here.
Deuterium and tritium are the two heavy isotopes of hydrogen. Like hydrogen, they have only one electron in their outer shell. According to the relativistic orbital model, the orbitals of deuterium and tritium are identical to the orbital of protium, or normal hydrogen. Within the spherical cloud of the 1s orbital is an endless loop in the form of a double helix. The outer and inner radii of this loop are each determined by the 90 percent line. This line was defined arbitrarily to improve the model's manageability. It limits the probability that the respective electron will be found there. The shape of the orbitals is determined by the proton number of the atomic nucleus and the electron's quantum numbers, rather than by the nucleus's mass. Since all hydrogen isotopes have one proton, their electron shells are identical. Despite the identical shape, there are minute differences known as the isotope effect. Due to the increased number of neutrons, the heavier nucleus shifts the atom’s center of mass slightly, resulting in reduced zero-point energy and influencing bond lengths in molecules. However, the orbital itself retains its fundamental, spherically symmetric 1s shape because the double-helix-shaped loop around the atomic nucleus can rotate freely. Zero-point energy is the energy retained by a quantum system, such as a chemical bond, at absolute zero (0 K). This energy arises from constant quantum mechanical vibrations and depends on the mass of the atom. The heavier the atom, the slower it vibrates for a given bond strength. Zero-point energy (E₀) is inversely proportional to the square root of the reduced mass (μ). A heavier atom has a greater μ and therefore a lower energy value. Comparison of hydrogen isotopes: Protium (¹H) has the smallest mass. It possesses the highest zero-point energy in bonds, such as O–H or C–H bonds. Deuterium (²H or D), the heavy hydrogen atom, is twice as heavy as protium. It has a notably lower zero-point energy. Tritium (³H or T), the heaviest hydrogen isotope, is three times as heavy as protium and has the lowest zero-point energy. Due to its lower zero-point energy, deuterium lies deeper in the potential well of the chemical bond. More activation energy is required to break a bond involving deuterium than a bond involving normal hydrogen. This phenomenon is known as the kinetic isotope effect.
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Chapter 6: The Helium Mystery has been Solved ! https://studio.youtube.com/video/yaRj...
In the relativistic spherical model, an s- orbital is considered a ring oscillation with two periods. The doubly positively charged nucleus exerts a strong attractive force on both helium electrons, forcing them independently into an orbital path involving four changes in spin (s, s’) from “up” to “down.” This ring-shaped oscillation, which may also be referred to as a standing wave, has an amplitude defined by the center line between the inner and outer 90 percent lines. These lines delimit the probability of finding the two helium electrons and comprise four arcs of equal length. Each arc is connected to the others within a common angular momentum plane (β'). The two electrons move independently on two separate transformation spheres with opposite directions of rotation in cyclonic rotation around the atomic nucleus. The electron-electron interaction is characterized by mutual repulsion between the negatively charged electrons (e), which repel one another according to Coulomb's law. The relativistic spherical model allows the two electrons of the s- orbital to lie on the surfaces of anticyclically oscillating transformation spheres of equal radius and be as far apart as possible. This quantum mechanical and dynamic choreography allows the pair of electrons to move along precise, predictable, equal-length trajectories — similar to Keplerian orbits — while simultaneously defining an entangled probability space with the inner and outer 90 percent lines. This probability space corresponds to the results of the Schrödinger equation. The probability of finding the two electrons within this space depends on the radius of the transformation sphere of the respective s- orbital and the Pauli exclusion principle. During one orbital revolution, the spin (s, s') changes from "up" to "down" four times. This means that fluid dynamic equilibrium can be achieved with just one electron, as seen with hydrogen in Chapters 1 and 2. This equilibrium enables atoms to form molecules and crystals without generating undesirable electric fields. Changing the spin direction (s, s') at least four times causes subatomic particles to behave like a fluid that can organize the development of living organisms.
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Chapter 7: Beryllium and Quantum Gravity , https://lnkd.in/ewyE5VJr
Niels Bohr's 1913 spherical shell model of atoms is incompatible with Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which describes the macroscopic bending of space and time. Einstein presented this theory to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin on November 25, 1915. In contrast, Bohr coined the term "quantum leap," highlighting the connection between spacetime and quantum physics for the first time. However, the opportunity to further develop a relativistic orbital model was lost when the uncertainty principle was introduced to nuclear science. This was due to the wave-particle paradox first observed by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 and the equations established by Erwin Schrödinger in 1926 to calculate the probability of an electron's position. Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that electrons exist as particles characterized by mass, an axis of angular momentum, and quantum properties when observed. The novel quantum gravity theory illustrates this with the example of beryllium, where two electrons occupy the 1s and 2s orbitals. This theory applies to all 25 elementary quantum building blocks, from which all matter—including crystals, molecules, and the 118 known chemical elements—is derived. Consequently, the cubic and spherical orbital model presented here can be considered a consistent theory of the curvature of space and time. This includes quantum leaps and dwell times that depend on the energy level of the shell, as well as resonance effects involving zero-point energy. Through these effects, entangled information can travel instantaneously. Thus, the concept of the present as a boundary between the past and future is eliminated.
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Chapter 8: Boron and Carbon, https://studio.youtube.com/video/O5gx
The One Geometric Structure that Governs the Universe as a Whole is presented here.
According to the relativistic spherical model, the boron and carbon orbitals in the outermost shell consist of two spherical s-orbitals and one dumbbell-shaped p-orbital. In its ground state, the electron shell of the boron atom contains five electrons arranged in the configuration 1s²2s²2p¹. According to this model, the innermost shell's small, spherical s-orbital is fully occupied by two electrons. Boron is the first element in which a p-orbital is occupied. Of the three possible dumbbell-shaped p- orbitals p1x, p2y and p3z, exactly one is occupied by a single electron. This orbital lies along one of the three spatial axes x, y, or z. In the relativistic spherical model, a carbon atom has six electrons in total. Two electrons oscillate as a standing wave in the 1s² orbital, completing two cycles around the atomic nucleus within the first transformation sphere, which has a radius of r1. The other two electrons act as valence electrons and oscillate as a standing wave in the 2s² orbital at twice the frequency of the 1s² orbital. These electrons complete two cycles around the nucleus within a second transformation sphere with a larger radius r2. The region occupied by the remaining two valence electrons in a carbon atom’s electron shell is characterized by a dumbbell-shaped orbital. According to the relativistic spherical model, the probability of finding the six electrons corresponds to the results obtained by solving the Schrödinger equation. The electron shell of carbon (atomic number 6) fills from the inside out. Its four valence electrons determine its tetravalent bonding behavior, whereby it always forms four bonds. To achieve a noble gas configuration of eight electrons and become stable, carbon shares four of its electrons with other atoms. Carbon preferentially forms covalent bonds, also known as electron pair bonds, with hydrogen. Orbitals, or the "residences" of electrons, often rearrange in a process called hybridization, which allows for single, double, or triple bonds. By bonding with itself, carbon forms long chains and rings that are the basis of life. The next element in the periodic table is nitrogen, which has seven electrons: two in the s¹ orbital and five valence electrons. The two occupied p-orbitals of carbon and boron are perpendicular to each other. This configuration determines the bonding behavior of these elements. These elements are rarely found in their pure ground state. Hybridization of s- and p-orbitals creates new, equivalent orbitals. Carbon typically forms four sp³ hybrid orbitals in a tetrahedral configuration, forming four equivalent bonds. Boron, on the other hand, often forms three bonds with trigonal-planar sp² hybrid orbitals.
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Chapter 9: Oxygen and Nitrogen, https://lnkd.in/ea8VdYzf
In the relativistic orbital model, the 1s orbital of nitrogen and oxygen is a small, perfect, hollow green sphere that closely surrounds the atomic nucleus. Looking inside the sphere reveals two quadruple-twisted belts in complementary colors: blue for nitrogen and yellow for oxygen. These define a spherical volume within which the two electrons of the 1s² orbital are found with 90 percent probability. The two negatively charged electrons repel each other and cannot approach the positively charged nucleus too closely. From an energetic point of view, the most favorable way to fulfill these seemingly contradictory requirements is a trajectory consisting of four arcs of equal length connected in the β′ angular momentum plane. To prevent acceleration along this orbit and ensure that the electrons do not avoid one another, their orbital curves must lie on the surface of a transformation sphere with a uniform radius for the respective s-orbital. The Poincaré group satisfies this condition by combining Lorentz transformations, rotations, and translations. The 2s² orbital is depicted as a violet hollow sphere containing two belt-like structures, each of which contains one electron in a complementary color, either blue or red. The three 2p orbitals each have a distinct dumbbell shape perpendicular to the other two and contain one electron each. Since oxygen has one more electron than nitrogen, two of the three p orbitals are occupied by two electrons each. At very high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen form covalent bonds by sharing electrons. The new molecules formed in this process are nitrogen oxides. In air, nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂) always occur in pairs, floating without combining at normal temperatures. The nitrogen molecule is very stable due to its triple bond. At room temperature, there is not enough energy to break this strong bond. However, when temperatures rise significantly, such as during a lightning strike or inside a car engine, the strong bonds of the original gases break. This allows the nitrogen and oxygen atoms to share electrons and form covalent bonds, producing the hazardous gases nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
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Chapter 10: Fluorine and Neon, https://studio.youtube.com/video/DJqk
According to the relativistic orbital model, the 1s orbital forms a small, perfect hollow sphere that closely surrounds the atomic nucleus. Looking inside the 1s orbital, shown in green for fluorine and neon, reveals two quadruple-twisted belts in complementary blue and yellow. These define a spherical volume within which the two electrons of the 1s² orbital are found with 90 percent probability. The two negatively charged electrons repel one another and cannot come closer to the positively charged nucleus. From an energetic point of view, the most favorable way to fulfill these seemingly contradictory requirements is a trajectory consisting of four arcs of equal length connected in the β' angular momentum plane. To prevent acceleration or avoidance along this orbit, the electrons must lie on the surface of a transformation sphere with a uniform radius, given that their orbital curves must be of equal length. This condition can be satisfied by a Lorentz transformation combined with a rotation or translation, which is known as the Poincaré group. The 2s² orbital encloses the blue 1s² orbital within a violet hollow sphere. The 2s² orbital has two belt structures, each of which contains one electron. The complementary colors of these structures are blue and red. Three 2p orbitals have separate dumbbell shapes that are perpendicular to each other. These orbitals are occupied by five electrons in fluorine and six electrons in neon. Therefore, fluorine has an atomic number of nine and neon has an atomic number of ten because it has three 3p orbitals, each of which accommodates two electrons. Orbitals 1s² and 2s² for fluorine and 3p² for neon define the region in which electrons are located with 90% probability.
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Chapter 11: Manganese and Iron, https://studio.youtube.com/video/ygQj
According to the relativistic orbital model, the 1s orbital of the transition metals manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) forms a small, perfect hollow sphere that closely surrounds the atomic nucleus. Looking inside this sphere, which is shown in green for fluorine and neon, reveals two quadruple-twisted belts in complementary blue and yellow. The two negatively charged electrons repel each other and cannot approach the positively charged nucleus too closely. From an energetic point of view, the most favorable way to fulfill these seemingly contradictory requirements is a trajectory consisting of four arcs of equal length connected in the β' angular momentum plane. For these electrons to neither accelerate nor avoid one another, and for their orbital curves to be equal in length, they must lie on the surface of a uniform-radius transformation sphere. The 2s² orbital forms a violet hollow sphere with complementary blue and red colors representing two belt structures, each of which accommodates one electron. The blue 1s² orbital is surrounded by the s³ orbital. Each band structure of the s³ orbital is occupied by a single electron and forms an orange hollow sphere using complementary colors. The outermost electron shell of the s orbitals forms an additional hollow sphere. The complementary red and green band structures of the s orbitals, each of which is occupied by a single electron, merge to create a brown sphere. Each fully occupied, perfectly hollow spherical orbital contains two band structures in which the spin undergoes a fourfold sequence to return to the starting point of a standing wave in a universal orbit with an angular sum of 720°. According to the hypothesis presented here for the first time, the oscillation of the s orbitals, which can be explained by the Poincaré conjecture, derives energy from cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). The s-orbital belt structure, illustrated using transition metals such as manganese and iron, repeats on a scale 10¹⁰ times smaller — the Planck scale —enabling resonance with the CMB. Each energy level is associated with three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals p_x, p_y, and p_z along mutually perpendicular spatial axes x, y, and z, shown in yellow. The five 3D orbitals play a crucial role in the chemistry of manganese and iron. Four of these d_(xy), d_(xz), d_(yz) and d_(x²-y²) are shaped like a four-leaf clover. The fifth d_(z²) resembles a dumbbell surrounded by a torus. The key difference between manganese and iron lies in their electron configurations: although the 'empty' spaces appear similar, the orbitals are filled differently in the two elements' respective configurations. Manganese has 25 electrons. Its configuration is [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s². The arrangement of electrons in the 3d level follows Hund's rule, whereby each of the five d-orbitals is initially occupied by one electron with the same spin. The 3d level is thus half-filled. This symmetrical distribution gives manganese's d-orbitals a uniform electron cloud, providing the atom with a particular degree of energetic stability. Iron, on the other hand, has 26 electrons, i.e. one more than manganese. Its configuration is [Ar] 3d⁶ 4s². As there are five d orbitals but six electrons must be accommodated, pairing occurs in one of the cloverleaf orbitals. In accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle, this orbital can accommodate two electrons with opposite spins. The remaining four d-orbitals are singly occupied. Due to the double occupancy of one of the orbitals, the symmetry is slightly more disrupted than in the case of manganese. The presence of four unpaired electrons gives elemental iron its pronounced ferromagnetic properties.
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Chapter 12: The Water Molecule, https://lnkd.in/ePeqiuNP
Ten electrons participate in relativistic covalent orbits. Water is fundamental to life on Earth thanks to its versatile properties. Its physical, chemical, electrical, and optical properties depend on its molecular structure as well as the bonds and interactions between its molecules. A polar covalent bond is defined as a chemical bond in which the involved atoms carry partial charges due to their differing electronegativities (3.44 for oxygen and 2.2 for hydrogen). In the case of water, this difference results in a bipolar molecule consisting of one negatively charged oxygen atom and two positively charged hydrogen atoms. The bond between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms is not strong enough to form a covalent ionic bond. As a member of the sixth main group of the periodic table, oxygen has six outer electrons. The two hydrogen atoms are arranged at a 104.5-degree angle to each other. There are two types of hydrogen bonds: linear, with a bond angle of 180°, and non-linear, with a bond angle between 160° and 200°. Non-linear bonds form a tetrahedral network. The typical length of a hydrogen bond is 0.18 nm. Hydrogen bonding is responsible for many of water's important properties. These include its liquid state under normal conditions, cohesion, its relatively high boiling point, and its density anomaly. Van der Waals forces act between water molecules, constantly breaking up and reassembling molecular clusters and giving water its remarkable properties. For instance, water is a liquid above freezing and solidifies into ice below 0°C when six water molecules form a ring via hydrogen bonds. Below -22°C, this forms a cubic ice structure. The high energy required to convert liquid water to vapor at 100°C is due to the fact that hydrogen bonds must be broken during evaporation, which requires more energy than other substances.
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Chapter 13: When Water Turns to Ice: https://lnkd.in/djaTWWiJ
When water freezes, its molecules slow down and lock into a fixed, hexagonal crystal structure. This process is accompanied by an increase in volume. This process occurs at 0°C (32°F) and is known as freezing. For a closer look at how water particles slow down and lock together when changing from a liquid to a solid, see 'Why Does Water Freeze?' Molecular Changes: Slower Movement: Water particles lose heat energy, causing them to move much more slowly than in warm liquid water. Bonding: Stable hydrogen bonds form between the molecules and lock them into a permanent open-ring pattern. The molecules sit slightly further apart in ice than in liquid water, making ice less dense and causing it to float. The exact temperature at which liquid water changes to ice is 0°C (32°F) under normal air pressure. Ice requires a small initial impurity, such as a speck of dust or a scratch on a container, to begin forming crystals. The process of turning into a solid gently releases tiny amounts of heat into the surrounding area.
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Chapter 14: The Four Hybrid Orbitals of Methane, https://lnkd.in/e_CQjwkt
This animated model illustrates hybrid orbitals, which are based on chained ring oscillations. Each blue or red semicircular arc represents a plane in which an electron moves at 2,200 kilometers per hour (km/h), inducing a magnetic field. The example of methane shows how its four electrons combine with the electrons of four hydrogen atoms within hybrid orbitals. Each of the four hybrid orbitals consists of six semicircular arcs of equal radius. Three of these arcs lie close to the carbon atom's nucleus and three lie close to the hydrogen atom's nucleus. The arcs are connected in a common plane, and the direction of the centripetal force exerted on the electrons changes suddenly by 90 degrees at each of the six connection points. This results in a torque being exerted on the electrons' angular momentum axis, initiating a transition from an upward spin to a downward spin. Due to the mirror symmetry of the four hybrid orbitals in relation to the angular momentum plane, the induced magnetic forces cancel each other out. This ensures that the methane molecule exerts no forces on its atomic or molecular environment. The offset of the momentum planes of the hybrid orbitals at 109.5° gives rise to the tetrahedral structure characteristic of methane. The final sequence of the animation shows the four electron "crowns" of methane coming together to form a six-period ring vibration that orbits both the carbon and hydrogen nuclei, changing direction six times. Hybrid orbitals, based on the structural form of a double helix, are fundamental to carbon chemistry. As a relativistic orbital model, the model of orbitals formed from spheres and fractals of spheres has implications that extend beyond carbon chemistry. It forms the basis of a unified theory that encompasses all natural sciences.
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Chapter 15: Benzene and August Kekulé's Dream, https://lnkd.in/ez3k8bdM
Ladies and gentlemen, the Res Institute is proud to present a relativistic orbital model using benzene as an example. The benzene ring is depicted with six mobile electrons in accordance with its molecular formula, C₆H₆. Benzene is the parent compound of aromatic hydrocarbons. This colorless liquid has a distinctive, sweet, aromatic odor. It is highly flammable and burns with a strong, sooty flame. Benzene is nonpolar and miscible with many organic solvents but not water. Discussions about the structure of benzene played a central role in developing organic chemistry theory. According to legend, in 1865, the German chemist August Kekulé had a dream in which he saw a snake biting its own tail. This image of the ouroboros marks the beginning of hydrocarbon chemistry in Germany. Kekulé's model was the first to reflect experimental findings that all carbon atoms in benzene are equivalent. August Kekulé (born September 7, 1829, in Darmstadt; died July 13, 1896, in Bonn) was a German chemist and natural scientist who laid the foundations for the modern structural theory of organic chemistry. From 1895 onward, he was also known as Kekulé von Stradonitz.
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Chapter 16: Graphene, https://lnkd.in/edR67HE4
The fundamental importance of graphene as a revolutionary material in modern science and technology stems from its intrinsic properties. Its physical, chemical, electrical, mechanical, and structural properties depend on its molecular structure and the bonds and interactions between carbon atoms within the graphene sheet. A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond in which the involved atoms share electrons to achieve stability. In graphene, this concept is realized through a network of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional, hexagonal lattice. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three neighboring carbon atoms via sigma bonds, forming a continuous, planar structure. The carbon-carbon bond lengths in graphene are approximately 1.42 angstroms (Å), slightly shorter than the typical single bond length due to partial double-bond character arising from delocalization. As second-period elements, the carbon atoms in graphene utilize sp² hybridization. Each carbon atom forms three sp² hybrid orbitals that overlap with the sp² orbitals of neighboring carbon atoms. These overlaps create the σ-bonds that give the graphene lattice its structural integrity. The unhybridized p orbitals of each carbon atom are perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and overlap to form an extensive π-electron system. The delocalization of these π electrons extends across the entire graphene sheet, giving graphene its remarkable electronic and thermal conductivity.
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Chapter 17: Superconductivity in Graphene, https://lnkd.in/e6iSpprU
A change in the spin oscillation mode allows for electron superpositions, affecting conductivity. You are all familiar with the saying, "Not seeing the forest for the trees." Almost a hundred years ago, Paul Dirac must have felt the same way when he wrote the following comment on his fundamental results at the end of his 1928 essay "On the Quantum Theory of the Electron" in Physikalische Zeitschrift, volume XXIX: "The theory allows transitions from +e to −e." However, the probability of these transitions is extremely small. Consequently, the present theory is an approximation. This difficulty can only be solved by fundamentally changing our current ideas, which may be related to the difference between the past and the future." Across time and space, I would like to address the venerable master. Perhaps the transition from +e to −e is so ubiquitous that it is overlooked, like the forest in which the trees stand. The video clip bears all the hallmarks of the fundamental change in ideas proposed by Paul Dirac. The single electron shown in yellow makes the transition from +e to −e four times in a single orbit. Without this ability, an electron would generate an electric vortex field at a speed of 2,200 km/s as a bipolar charge carrier. This process would occur simultaneously with the excitation of neighboring electrons. The consequences of such an event at the synapses of the human brain, for example, are alarming because they would result in an inability to think. Despite its potential to be a ubiquitous quantum mechanical principle governing the operation of the universe, the transition from +e to −e is considered nonexistent due to its common occurrence.
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